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4
PERSONALITY AND PERCEPTION
Unit structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction Personality
4.2 Personality Frameworks
4.2.1 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective: Exploring The
Unconscious:
4.2.2 The Neo -Freudian And Psychodynamic Theorists:
4.2.3 Abraham Maslow’s Self -Actualizing Person:
4.2.4 Carl Rogers’ Person -Centered Perspective:
4.3 Other Personality Attributes Relevant To Ob
4.4 Values
4.4.1 Nature of Values
4.4.2 Classification Of Values
4.5 Linking an Individuals Personality And Values To The
Workplace
4.5.1. Personality Job Fit Theory
4.5.2. Person -Organization Fit Theory
4.6 What Is Perception
4.7 Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others
4.7.1 Attribution Theory
4.7.2 Errors In Attribution
4.8 The Link between Perceptio n and Individual Decision Making
4.9 Summery
4.10 Questions
4.11 References munotes.in
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4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand -
The psychoanalytic view of human mind, its views on division of
personality and the stages of personality development
Personality and values and their link to workplace
How perception affect our decision making
4.1 INTRODUCTION PERSONALITY
Though all human beings are similar in many ways they
perceive, learn, remember, think and feel, yet there are individual
differences and each one of us is unique. These differences and
uniqueness is due to personality differences. Personality is an
import ant dimension of individual differences. Personality has been
the area of interest for psychology for more than 100 years. This
and the next unit would provide an exposure to different personality
theories, ranging from classical to contemporary. This unit
discusses psychodynamic and humanistic theories of personality.
The next unit discusses trait and socio -cognitive theories of
personality.
Personality can be considered as sum -total of who you are –
emotions, attitudes, motives, and behaviour. No two peo ple are
same because they have different personality.
Personality is unique and relatively stable way in which
people feel, think, and behave throughout the life.
Personality can be defined as a person’s characteristic pattern
of thinking, feeling, and acting (Mayers ,2013).
4.2 PERSONALITY FRAMEWORKS
4.2.1 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective: Exploring the
Unconscious:
Sigmund Freud was born 1856. That was a Victorian era in
Europe – a time of tremendous discovery and scientific
advancement, but also a time of sexual repression and male
dominance. In general, only male sexuality was acknowledged and
that too very discree tly. Freud was very independent, brilliant and
voracious book reader right from his teens. He became a doctor
specializing in nervous disorders and started a private clinic. Very
soon he became famous because of his work in psychiatry. Till
today his influ ence lingers in psychiatry and clinical psychology as
well as in many other courses.
Many of his patients were rich females, and while treating
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base, e.g., a patient may complain that she has lost all sensations
in her hand and yet he observed that no sensory nerve was
damaged that would numb only the entire hand but nothing else.
Freud’s search for a cause for such disorders made him realize that
some neurological disorders can have psycho logical causes. He
called his theory of personality and the associated treatment
techniques as Psychoanalysis. In his personality theory, he
emphasized first of all on division of mind, then on structure of
personality, psycho -sexual stages of personality development and
defense mechanism.
Division of the Mind:
Freud believed that mind is divided into three parts. The
conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious.
1) The Conscious Mind :
The conscious mind is the uppermost part of the mind. It
contains information one is aware of at any given time. This is an
Individual’s current perceptions, memories, thoughts, fantasies,
feelings that he is aware of. It is quite close to short -term memor y
concept which you have studied in earlier chapters. Freud believed
that mind is mostly hidden and the conscious awareness is like the
part of an iceberg. In other words, what we are aware of is a very
small part of our consciousness and beneath this awar eness is the
large unconscious mind with its thoughts, wishes, feelings and
memories.
2) The Preconscious Mind :
The preconscious mind contains ideas, feelings, events,
concerns beliefs, thoughts that person is not aware at present but
can easily be mad e accessible to the conscious. This contains
memories that are not at the moment in the conscious thought
process, but can readily be brought to mind whenever needed. It
works closely with the conscious mind. Today, it can be called as
explicit long -term-memory. But Freud suggested that these two are
the smallest parts of mind.
3) The Unconscious Mind:
The unconscious mind (often called as “the unconscious”) is
the most central and significant part of Freudian theory. The
unconscious is most important de terminant of human personality
and behaviour. According to Freud, the unconscious is a mass of
unacceptable passions and thoughts that he believed we repress or
forcibly block from our consciousness because it would be too
stressful to acknowledge them. Th ese are the major source of our
motivations ranging from simple desires for food, and sex to the
complex motives like creativity of an artist. This largest part of mind
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troubleshooting feelings and ideas powerfully influence us,
sometimes getting expressed in disguised form such as dreams,
slip of tongue or pen, the work we choose, the beliefs we hold, our
daily habits, or other behavior that people carry out without
understanding the reasons for it. He believed that nothing is ever
accidental and considered jokes as expression of repressed sexual
and aggressive tendencies and dreams as the “royal road to the
unconscious”. In dream analyses, he searched for patients’ inner
conflicts.
To gain access to patients’ unconscious mind, initially he used
hypnosis. But that did not work. So, he devised a new method
called “Free Association”. In using this method, he asked his
patients to relax and say whatever came to their mind, no matter
how embarrassing or trivial it is. He assumed that certain mental
blocks from patient’s distant past are responsible for his troubled
present and free association will allow him to retrace those mental
blocks, allowing him to peep into patient’s unconscious mind and
retrieve and remove painful memories stored from his childhood.
Personality Structure:
According to Freud, personality can be divided into three
parts. They dynamically interact with each other. They are: Id, Ego,
and Superego.
1) ID:
The first and primitive part of personality is Id. It is present
since infancy. It is completely unconscious and amoral. It contains
all the basic biological drives to survive, reproduce and aggress.
The id is the impulsive, child -like portion of the psych e that
operates on the “pleasure principle”. The pleasure principle states
that there should be immediate gratification of the needs without
caring about outside world’s restrictions or societal conventions of
civilized, standard, and moral behaviour. Peo ple dominated by ID
will concentrate on present pleasure rather than think about future
pleasure, e.g., they will enjoy parties, movies now rather than
sacrifice today’s pleasure for future success and happiness.
Freud believed that human personality is the result of our
efforts to resolve these conflicts between impulses and restraints
between our aggressive, pleasure seeking biological urges and our
internalized social control over these urges.
2) EGO:
This s econd part of personality is developed to handle the
reality. It is partially conscious part of mind that includes our higher
cognitive abilities, rationality, perceptions, thoughtfulness,
memories, learning, and logical processes. It provides buffer
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The Ego works on reality principleare satisfied in a realistic way that will avoid negative outcomes and will bring long term pleasure. So, there are times whthe gratification of id’s drive because of possible negative consequences. For example, if a very young kid is hungry, then he picks up food from anybody’s plate, but slightly older kids will not do that. Instead they would wait for their plarequest in more formal ways. If they are at stranger’s place, then they will prefer to stay hungry than asking for food. This is because ego develops with the age.
3) SUPEREGO:
Freud believed that around the age of 4 or 5 our superstarts developing and ego starts recognizing the demands of superego. Superego represents our moral values imbibed from the society. These are the rules and regulations about what is right and wrong taught by parents, teachers, and important others. Thsuperego tells us how we ought to behave. It forces ego to consider not only the real world but also the ideal world. In other worlds, it tells ego to not only avoid punishment but also to strive for ideal behavior. It strives for perfection. It preventsincorrect things, by producing guilt (also called as produces feeling of pride when we do morally correct things. A person with very strong superego may be virtuous and yet guiltridden, while another person with wusing self -restraint and yet may not feel any guilt. Fig. 14.1
Since the Id is unrealistically impulsive and the superego is unrealistically moralistic, thealways in conflict, the ego tries to strike a balance between the two. The ego is the “executive” part of the personality. It mediates between the impulsive demands of the id and the restraining demands of the superego and thworld. Anxiety is created when ego cannot meet their needs. Extreme anxiety leads to disorders. The
47
reality principle, which means that the id’s drives are satisfied in a realistic way that will avoid negative outcomes and will bring long term pleasure. So, there are times when ego denies the gratification of id’s drive because of possible negative consequences. For example, if a very young kid is hungry, then he picks up food from anybody’s plate, but slightly older kids will not do that. Instead they would wait for their plate to come or make a request in more formal ways. If they are at stranger’s place, then they will prefer to stay hungry than asking for food. This is because Freud believed that around the age of 4 or 5 our superego starts developing and ego starts recognizing the demands of represents our moral values imbibed from the society. These are the rules and regulations about what is right and wrong taught by parents, teachers, and important others. The superego tells us how we ought to behave. It forces ego to consider not only the real world but also the ideal world. In other worlds, it tells ego to not only avoid punishment but also to strive for ideal behavior. It strives for perfection. It prevents us from doing morally incorrect things, by producing guilt (also called as moral anxiety ). It produces feeling of pride when we do morally correct things. A person with very strong superego may be virtuous and yet guilt-ridden, while another person with weak superego may be low in restraint and yet may not feel any guilt.
he Id is unrealistically impulsive and the superego is unrealistically moralistic, the id and superego’s demands are always in conflict, the ego tries to strike a balance between the two. The ego is the “executive” part of the personality. It mediates between the impulsive demands of the id and the restraining demands of the superego and the real life demands of the external Anxiety is created when ego cannot meet their needs. Extreme anxiety leads to disorders. The Psychological Defense
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Mechanisms are used to deal with anxiety and stress created by
conflicts between the three compone nts of personality. They are
unconscious strategies people use to deal with the anxiety and by
distorting the reality. They have been classified as psychotic,
immature, neurotic and healthy defense mechanisms. But before
talking about defense mechanisms in detail let us look at the
developmental stages of personality.
Developmental Stages of Personality:
Freud proposed that development of personality takes place
when a child passes through a series of psychosexual stages.
Freud has identified particular body parts as a focus of specific
developmental stage. In each psychosexual stage, id’s pleasure
seeking energies focus on specific body parts that provide
sensation of pleasure during that stage. It is called as erogenous
zone. In every psychosexual sta ge, there is a conflict between id,
ego and superego. Conflicts unresolved during earlier
psychosexual stages could lead to maladaptive behavior in the
adult years. These stages are Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and
Genital .
Table 14.1
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development
Stage Age Erogenous Characteristics
Oral Birth to
18
months
Mouth Indulges in oral activities like
sucking, biting, mouthing,
eating, to obtain pleasure.
Anal
18 to 36
months
Anus
Gratification obtained from
withholding and expelling
fesses, try to handle the
pressures of society
regarding toilet training.
Fixation leads to anal
expulsive or anal -retentive
personality.
Phallic
3-6years
Genitals
Derives pleasure by fondling
genitals.
Oedipal Conflict is important
characteristics, and it is
resolved by identifying with
same sex parents.
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Latency 6 years to
Puberty
Adolescence
Social skills
intellectual
abilities. The sexual feelings are kept
latent by repressing them in
unconscious.
Genital
Puberty
onwards Maturation of sexual interests
- The mature, adult sexuality
develops during this stage.
1) Oral Stage :
The duration of first stage of psychosexual development,
namely Oral Stage , is from birth to 18 months. The erogenous zone
of oral stage is mouth. Children enjoy activities like sucking, biting,
mouthing, etc. The conflict that is experienced in this stage is
weaning the child from bottle or mother’s breast feed. The child will
get fixated in the oral stage if the child overindul ges (continue to
breast/bottle feed for longer duration)or become frustrated (due to
early or abrupt weaning) with the oral gratification. This leads to
development of oral personality in adulthood. Aggressive -
pessimistic traits develop if oral needs are u nder gratified and
dependency -optimism develops if they are over gratified. If they are
over gratified, they may continue to seek oral gratification by
overeating, talking too much, smoking, etc. If they are weaned
away too early leading to under gratifica tion they may act tough or
speak in “bitingly” sarcastic way, etc.
2) Anal Stage:
The duration of Anal Stage of psychosexual development is
from 18 months to 3 years. The erogenous zone of anal stage is
anus. Children at this stage derive pleasure by b oth withholding
and expulsion of fesses at will. In addition to physical pleasure,
child also derives pleasure from self -control and the praise from
parents. The conflict that is experienced in this stage is toilet
training. The child will get fixated in t he anal stage if toilet training is
too harsh. The conflict leads to development of anal personality in
adulthood. They are of two types: anal expulsive personalities and
anal retentive personalities . Anal Expulsive Personality results from
child’s rebel a gainst toilet training by parents. The adult would show
destructiveness, hostility, emotional outbursts, disorganization,
rebelliousness and carelessness. They could also become
extremely generous and indiscipline. Anal-Retentive Personality
develops due t o fear of punishment. The child retains fesses and
refuses to go to toilet. They develop traits like excessive
orderliness, neatness, stubbornness, a compulsion for control and
have interest in collecting, holding, and retaining objects.
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3) Phallic Stag e:
The Phallic Stage is between 3 years to 6 years. The genitals
are erogenous zone during this stage. Child derives pleasure by
fondling genitals. They develop unconscious sexual desires for their
mother and jealousy and hatred for their fathers, whom they
consider as their rivals. Similarly, girls develop unconscious sexual
desire for their fathers. Boys experience Oedipal Conflict and girls
experience Electra Complex in this phase. Father is perceived as
powerful, and they develop castration anxiety, a fear that their penis
will be cut -off by their fathers, if fathers come to know of their
sexual attraction towards their mothers. To resolve this anxiety
boys Identify with their fathers and girls identify with their mothers.
This is called as Oedipus c omplex. According to Freud, girls get
attracted to father and experience penis envy , feeling of inferiority
for not having that anatomical part. They held mother responsible
for this. To resolve this conflictual feeling towards mother, girls
identify with mother. Normal sexual development occurs if the
conflict is resolved. Immature sexual attitudes, promiscuous or
sexually inhibited behaviour, and sexual confusion in adulthood
may result from fixation in phallic stage.
4) Latency Stage:
The duration of this stage is from 7 to 12 years. The sexual
feeling of child is repressed in unconscious, or kept latent , and the
child grows physically, intellectually, and socially. This is relatively a
calm stage where sexual energy is converted into i nterest in
excelling in school work and sports, etc.
5) Genital Stage:
The duration of this phase is from 13 years onwards till death.
The mature, adult sexuality develops during this stage. At this
stage, once again the attention is shifted to genita ls but sexual
attraction is shifted from one’s parents to members of the opposite
sex. Sexual urges are expressed through socially approved
channels. Sex takes a matured form by moving from desire for
pleasure only to a desire for reproduction. The sexual and
aggressive motives are transferred into energy for marriage,
occupation and child rearing.
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Defense Mechanisms:
Table 14.2 Defense Mechanism Unconscious process employed to avoid
anxiety -arousing
thoughts/feelings Examples
Regression Reverting back to more
immature behavior from
infantile psychosexual
stage, where some psychic
energy remains fixated. Throwing temper
tantrums as an
adult when you
don’t get your way
or reverting back to
the oral comfort of
thumb sucking .
Reaction
Formation Acting in exactly the
opposite way to one’s
unacceptable impulses. Being
overprotective of
and generous
towards an
unwanted child, or
repressing angry
feelings, a person
may display
exaggerated
friendliness.
Projection Attributing one’s own
unacc eptable feelings and
thoughts to others and not
to yourself. Accusing your
friend on cheating
on you because you
have felt like
cheating on her.
There is a saying
“The thief thinks
everyone else is a
thief”.
Rationalization Creating false excuses for
one’s unacceptable feelings
and thoughts to others and
not to yourself. In other
words, offering self -
justifying explanations in
place of the real, more
threatening unconscious
reasons for one’s actions. Justifying cheating
in an exam by
saying that
everyo ne else does
that, or a habitual
drinker says he
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Displacement Redirecting unacceptable
feelings from the original
source to a safer, more
acceptable substitute target. Taking your anger
towards your boss
out on your wife or
children by shouting
at them and not at
your boss or a child
bangs the door hard
instead of shouting
back at his mother.
Denial Blocking external events
from awareness. If some
situation is just too much to
handle, the person refuses
to believe or even perceive
painful realities. Smokers may
refuse to admit to
themselves that
smoking is bad for
health, or a person
may refuse to
believe that his son
is involved in anti -
national activities.
Freud held that anxiety is the price we pay for civilization. There is
a constant tug of war between id and superego and ego has to
balance both of them. Sometimes, ego fears losing control over this
inner war and we experience anxiety. At such times, ego protects
itself with defense mechanisms, i.e., the tactics used to reduce or
redirect anxiety by distorting reality. All these defense mechanisms
work at unconscious level and ego unconscio usly defends itself
against anxiety. Some of these defense mechanisms are discussed
here.
4.2.2 The Neo -Freudian and Psychodynamic Theorists:
Freud’s theory has been criticized as well as praised by his
contemporaries and by other psychologists later. Those who
followed broad framework of Freud and developed their own
theories of psychoanalysis are called as Neo-Freudians . Neo -
Freudians accepted his basic ideas such as personality structure of
id, ego, superego; the importance of the unconscious; the sh aping
of personality in childhood; and the role of anxiety and defense
mechanisms in personality development. However, they did not
agree with the idea that only sex and aggression are dominant
motives in our lives. They believed that social interaction al so plays
an important role. Similarly, while accepting the role of unconscious
mind they emphasized the role of conscious mind also in
interpreting our experiences and in coping with our environment.
Some of the important Neo -Freudian theorists are Jung, A dler,
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Carl Jung :
Carl Gustav Jung differed from Freud on the nature of
unconscious and parted away from Freud. In addition to Personal
Unconscious , he developed the concept of Collective Unconscious .
It is the store house of our experiences as a species since ancient
ages. We are born with it and are not conscious of it. He called
these collective universal human memories as Archetypes, an
unlearned inclination to experience world in a particular way .
Among the many archetypes, Mother (our inner tendency to identify
a particular relationship of “mothering”), Anima/Animus (feminine
component within males/ masculine component within females),
Shadow (dark side of ego containing sex and life instincts), persona
(individuals public image) are important.
Jung was initially Freud’s disciple but later turned his
dissenter. While he agreed with the idea that unconscious exerts a
powerful influence on our behavior, he believed that unconscious
holds more than our repressed thoughts and feelings. He criticized
Freud’s theory of the Oedipus complex and his emphasis on
infantile sexuality. He said we all have a collective unconscious, a
storehouse of repressed memories specific to the individual and our
ancestral past. This is a level of unconscious shared with other
members of the human species comprising latent memories from
our ancestral and evolutionary past. ‘The form of the world into
which [a person] is born is already inborn in him, as a virtual image’
(Jung, 1953, p. 188). Jung called these ancestral memories and
images that have universal meaning across cultures as archetypes.
These archetypes show up in dreams, literature, art or religion.
These past experiences explain why people in different cultures
share certain myths and images, e.g., mother as a symbol of
nurturance, or f ear of the dark, or of snakes and spiders.
Alfred Adler:
Alfred Adler had struggled to overcome his own childhood
illnesses and accidents due to which he had suffered from
inferi ority complex. So, while proposing the concept of inferiority
complex he stated that everybody experiences sense of inferiority,
weakness and helplessness as a child and struggle to overcome
the inadequacies by become superior and powerful adults. He
ident ified ‘striving for superiority’ as a thrust propelling thought,
feelings, and actions of humans. Two important concepts in his
theory are: Parenting and Birth Order . According to Adler, the order
in which person is born in the family innately influences p ersons
personality. The first born , experience crisis as the attention shifts
to younger sibling after their births and to overcome this they
become overachievers. Middle born children are not pampered but
get the attention and become more superior. After dethroning older
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healthy competition. The youngest children have the least amount
of power in family and are more pampered and protected. This
creates a sense that they cannot take responsi bilities and feel
inferior to others.
Adler identified two Parenting Styles that leads to problems in
adulthood: Pampering and Neglect . Pampering parents overprotect
a child, provide excessive attention, and protect from the dark part
of life. As adults, child has poor skills to deal with realities, self -
doubts about abilities. A Neglecting Parent do not protect child at
all, and they are left to deal with life problems alone. As adults, they
fear the world, cannot trust others, and have trouble in develo ping
close relations.
Karen Horney:
Karen Horney differed from Freud on his masculine focus and
idea of ‘penis envy’ and women having weak superego. She
substituted the concept of ‘penis envy’ with her idea of ‘womb
envy’. She said that “The view that women are infantile and
emotional creatures, and as such, incapable of responsibility and
independence is the work of the masculine tendency to lower
women’s self -respect”. She considered the basic anxiety, a feeling
of fearfulness and anxiety experience i n childhood triggers the
desire for love and security.
Post Freud’s life, most contemporary psychodynamic theorists
and therapists do not accept the idea of sex as the basis of
personality. They do not accept the idea of id, ego and superego
and do not classify their patients in terms of oral, anal or phallic
characters. But they do accept that much of our mental life is
unconscious, that very often we struggle with inner conflicts among
our wishes, fears and values and that our childhood experiences
shape our personality and the way we become attached to others in
later life.
Neo-Freudians’ major disagreements with Freud can be
summarized as -
1. Socio cultural factors determine conflicts, not instincts.
2. Infantile sexuality is of little importance compared to socio -
cultural factors. Conflicts can be or are predominately non -
sexual.
3. Societal factors cause anxiety, not a defense.
4. Dreams have no latent content: could be metaphorical
expressions of the patient’s real concern or reflect struggles
to achieve self -awareness and responsibility.
5. Oedipal complex has no sexual component, is due to
interpersonal/ social factors.
6. Technique of treatment: normally emphasize ‘here and now’,
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4.2.3 Abraham Maslow’s Self -Actualizing Person:
Maslow developed his theory based on healthy, creative
people rather than troubled clinical cases. He proposed that we are
motivated by a hierarchy of needs. First, we are motivated to satisfy
our physiological needs followed by safety needs, then need to be
loved or belong and then self -esteem and finally self -actualization
and self -transcendence. Self -actualization refers to a process of
fulfilling our potential and self -transcendence refers to searching
meaning, purpose and communion beyond the self.
He based his study of self -actualization on the basis of
studying people like Abraham Lincoln, who were known for their
rich and productive lives. Maslow stated that such people share
certain similar characteristics. They are more self -aware, self -
acceptin g, open and spontaneous, loving and caring and not stuck
by their own opinions. While working with college students, Maslow
said that those who will become self -actualizing adults later on are
the ones who are likeable, caring, privately affectionate to th eir
elders and secretly uneasy about the cruelty, meanness and mob
spirit.
Maslow's self -actualizing characteristics:
Efficient perceptions of reality : Self-actualizers are able to
judge situations correctly and honestly. They are very
sensitive to the fake and dishonest, and are free to see
reality 'as it is'.
Comfortable acceptance of self, others and nature: Self-
actualizers accept their own human nature with all its flaws.
The shortcomings of others and the contradictions of the
human condition are accepted with humor and tolerance.
Reliant on own experiences and judgment: Independent,
not reliant on cultur e and environment to form opinions and
views .
Spontaneous and natural: True to oneself, rather than being
how others want. They have outgrown their mixed feelings
towards their parents, have found their ultimate goals, have
enough courage to be unpopular , to be unashamed about
being openly virtuous.
Task centering : Since they are secure in their sense of who
they are, their interests are problem -centered and not self -
centered. They focus their energies on a particular task and
make that task as the missi on of their lives. Most of Maslow's
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Autonomy : Self-actualizers are free from reliance on external
authorities or other people. They tend to be resourceful and
independent.
Continued freshness of appreciation : The self -actualizer
seems to constantly renew appreciation of life's basic goods.
A sunset or a flower will be experienced as intensely time
after time as it was at first. There is an "innocence of vision" ,
like that of an artist or child.
Profound interpersonal relationships: The interpersonal
relationships of self -actualizers are marked by deep loving
bonds.
Comfort with solitude : Despite their satisfying relationships
with others, self -actualizing people value solitude and are
comfortable being alone.
Non-hostile sense of humor : This refers to the ability to
laugh at oneself.
Peak experiences: All of Maslow's subjects reported the
frequent occurrence of peak experiences (temporary
moments of self -actualization). These occasions were
marked by feelings of ecstasy, harmony, and deep meaning.
Self-actualizers reported feeling at one with the universe,
stronger and calmer than ever before, filled with light,
beauty, goodness, and so forth. According to Maslow, peak
experiences are "Feelings of limitless horizons opening up to
the vision, the feeling of b eing simultaneously more powerful
and also more helpless than one ever was before, the
feeling of ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of
placement in time and space with, finally, the conviction that
something extremely important and valuable had happened ,
so that the subject was to some extent transformed and
strengthened even in his daily life by such experiences." In
other words, these are moments of transcendence in which
a person emerges feeling changed and transformed.
Socially compassionate: Poss essing humanity. They are
emotionally mature and have learned enough about life so
that they are compassionate towards others.
Few friends: They have f ew close intimate friends rather than
many superficial relationships.
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4.2.4 Carl Rogers’ Person -Centered Perspective:
Carl Roger also believed that people are basically good and
are endowed with self -actualizing tendencies. Unless faced with an
environment that hinders growth, each of us is like a fruit, ready for
growth and fu lfillment. Roger believed that growth promoting
climate needs to fulfill three conditions:
1. Genuineness : Genuine people are open with their feelings,
drop their pretentions or deceptive outward appearance, are
transparent and self -disclosing.
2. Acceptance: When people are accepting, they offer
unconditional positive regard, an attitude of grace that values us
even knowing our failings. It is a great relief to drop our
pretentions, confess our worst feelings, and discover that we
are still accepted, that we a re free to be spontaneous without
feeling the loss of others’ esteem.
3. Empathy: Empathic people share and mirror other’s feelings
and reflect their meanings.
Rogers believed that genuineness, acceptance and empathy
are like water, sun and nutrients that help us to grow like a fruit. As
people are accepted and prized, they tend to develop a more caring
attitude toward themselves. When people are heard emphatical ly, it
becomes possible for them to listen more accurately to the flow of
inner experiencing. Unconditional love makes a person optimistic,
enthusiastic and helpful. For Carl Rogers and Maslow, the central
figure of personality is self -concept. Self -conce pt refers to all the
thoughts and feelings that one has in response to a question -Who
am I? If self -concept is positive we view the world positively and if
we have negative self -concept, we view the world negatively and
we will feel dissatisfied and unhapp y.
4.3 OTHER PERSONALITY ATTRIBUTES RELEVANT
TO OB
Following are the five major personalit y attributes that influence OB
Locus of Control
Locus of control is the center of control of an individual’s code of
conduct. People can be grouped into two categories i.e., internals
and externals respectively. People who consider themselves as the
masters of their own fates are known as internals, while, those who
affirm that their lives are controlled by outside forces known as
externals.
Before making any decision, internals actively search for
information, they are achievement driven, and want to command
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complex information processing, taking initiative and independent
action. Externals, on the other hand, are more compliant, more
willing to follow instructions, so, they do well in structured, routine
jobs.
Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism is being practical, emotionally distant, and
believing that ends justify means. Machiavellians are always
wanting to win and are great persuaders. Here are the significant
features of a high -mach individuals −
High-Machs prefer precise interactions rather than beating
about the bush.
High-Machs tend to improvise; they do not necessarily abide by
rules and regu lations all the time.
High-Machs get distracted by emotional details that are
irrelevant to the outcome of a project.
Self-esteem
It is the extent up to which people either like or dislike themselves.
Self-Esteem is directly related to the expectations of success and
on-the-job satisfaction. Individuals with high self -esteem think that
they have what it takes to succeed. So, they take more challenges
while selecting a job.
On the other hand, individuals with low self -esteem are more
susceptible to external distractions. So, they are more likely to seek
the approval of others and to adapt the beliefs and behaviors of
those they respect.
Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring is the capability of regulating one’s behavior
according to social situations. Individuals with high self -monitoring
skill easily adjust their behavior according to external, situational
factors. Their impulsive talents allow them to present public
personae which are completely different from their private
personalities.
However, people with low self-monitoring skills cannot cover
themselves. Regardless of any situation, they are always
themselves. They have an attitude of, “what you see is what you
get.”
Risk taking
Generally, managers are reluctant on taking risks. However,
individual risk -taking inclination affects the bulk of information
required by the managers and how long it takes them to make
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Thus, it is very important to recognize these differences and align
risk-taking propensity with precise job demands that can make
sense.
4.4 VALUES
Values Meaning
Meaning of values: Values can be defined as an individual's beliefs
concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes. Values
reflect an individual's sense of right or wrong and what "ought" to
be. Values are so inculcated that they can be presumed from
people's behaviour, personality, perception, and motivation. They
generally influence their behaviour. Values are relatively stable and
enduring. This is because of how they are originally learned. Some
common values organizational behavior has are fairn ess,
innovation and community involvement.
Concept of values: A value system is seen as a permanent
perceptual framework that influences the nature of a person's
behaviour. The values are the attributes possessed by a person
and thought desirable. Values are similar to attitudes but they are
permanent and well -built in nature. Everyone has a hierarchy of
values that forms a value system. This system is identified by the
relative importance they assign to such values as respect, equality,
freedom, self -respect, obedience, honesty, and so on.
Values Definition
According to M.Rokeach, "Values are global beliefs that guide
actions and judgements across a variety of situations".
According to Stephen Robbins, "Values are specific mode of
conduct or end -state of e xistence is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end -state
of existence".
According to Edward Spranger, "Values are a constellation of
viewpoints, prejudice, inner inclinations, likes & dislikes, rational &
irrational judgements, and association patterns that determine a
person's view of the world".
4.4.1 Nature of values
The nature of values is as follows:
1) Part of Culture: Values are elements of culture, which is a
complex set of values, ideas, attitudes, and o ther meaningful
symbols to shape human behaviour in society. Every society has its
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2) Learned Responses: Values are learned responses. Some of
these responses are learned from direct everyday experiences,
such that we maintain those responses whenever we are
confronted by the experiences from which they developed. Other
orientations are learned from vicarious experiences, such that our
response to a given experience is generaliz ed to other similar
experiences.
3) Inculcated : Values are inculcated and passed from generation
to generation by specific groups and institutions. Such transmission
starts from the family where the socialization process begins. Apart
from family, religiou s, educational, and ethnic institutions also
transmit values from one generation to another.
4) Social Phenomenon: Values are a social phenomenon, that is,
cultural habits are shared by aggregates of people living in an
organized society. An individual's w ay of behaving and thinking is
not culture, but group behaviour constitutes culture. The group is
developed and reinforced through social pressure upon those who
are interacting with one another.
5) Gratifying Responses: Values exist to meet the biological and
other needs of the individuals in society. Thus, elements in the
culture become extinguished when they are no longer gratifying to
members of society. Society rewards behaviours that are gratifying
for its members.
6) Adaptive Process: Culture is adap tive, either through an
evolutionary or dialectical process. Dialectical or sharply
discontinuous change occurs when the value system of culture
becomes associated with the gratification of only one group or class
in the environment. In such a case, other classes of the society
reject the logic of the "value system" and replace it with a "new
value system", such as through revolution or other methods. In the
evolutionary process, the change occurs as a gradual process, but
not through revolution.
Types of V alues
According to Rokeach classification, values can be of the following
types:
1) Terminal Values: 'Terminal values' lead to ends to be achieved
e.g., family security, self -respect, comfortable life, and a sense of
accomplishment. Terminal values reflec t what a person is ultimately
trying to achieve. A terminal value is an outcome or desired end
state that people seek to achieve. Organizations might adopt any
of the following as terminal values, or guiding principles -quality,
responsibility, excellence, innovativeness, morality, economy, and
profitability. Large insurance companies, e.g., may value
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predictable because the company cannot afford to take risks. It
must be there to pay off the pol icyholder's claims.
Terminal values, such as a sense of pleasure, salvation,
accomplishment, happiness, and wisdom are life goals or desired
end-states. These values represent the things that an individual
want to achieve or accomplish during their lives.
2) Instrumental Values : 'Instrumental values' relate to means for
achieving desired ends, e.g., ambition, courage, honesty, and
imagination. Instrumental values reflect how an individual gets
there. An instrumental value is a desired mode or type of
behav iour.
Modes of behaviour that organizations advocate include hard work,
respecting authority, traditions, courage, being conservative,
cautious, creative, frugal, honest, taking risks, and maintaining a
high standard. Instrumental values are alternative be haviours or
means by which a person achieves desired end -states. Sample
instrumental values include ambition, honesty, independence, love,
and obedience.
4.4.2 Classification of Values
Values can be classified as follows:
1) Human Values : Human values consist of all those values that
are universally applicable to all people These values relate to truth,
righteousness, peace, love, compassion, harmony, non -violence,
and appropriate ethical, humane behaviour.
2) Social Values: Social values are certain qu alities and beliefs
that are shared within a specific culture or group of people. In other
words, social values comprise all those values which people living
in society and having common needs and requirements, should
practice and strictly adhere to, in th e interests of making the lives of
all members of the society congenial and happy, thereby promoting
the welfare of the people. These values include tolerance of mutual
respect, understanding, co -existence, cooperation, coordination,
etc., for the good of one and all. Individuals should behave in the
pursuit of our goals.
3) Business Values: Business values comprise all those ethical
behavioural aspects in all business dealings and transactions.
Harmonious and holistic business practices will ensure greater
customer satisfaction, while business values cannot bypass profits
earned reasonably and ethically respecting the laws of the land.
Businesses mustn't get entangled in unscrupulous, unethical,
immoral practices involving harmful repercussions on the
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4) Community Values: Community values consist of the rules
framed for the welfare and development of the concerned
communities. These norms are prescribed by clubs, assoc iations,
and public organisations or by the committees of panchayats in
villages and rural areas.
5) Family Values: Family values involve the bonds of affection
between different members within nuclear joint families, and
respect towards elders, Ethical behaviour of youngsters towards
their parents and teachers and also the responsibilities of parents
towards their chi ldren, are values to be cherished.
6) Professional Values: Professional values include the rules of
conduct, ethical behaviour, patterns, and norms for various
professions.
7) National Values: National values comprise the rights and
responsibilities of cit izens. They also include the entire gamut of
civic duties. National integration can be promoted if citizens
promote activities for the promotion of communal harmony, national
integration, and understanding between various classes of persons
belonging to va rious parts of the country. National prestige can be
enhanced by strengthening the bonds of unity and affinity between
different religious groups of the country.
8) Secular Values : In the secular value system approach, the facts
of life are the major sourc e of inspiration and not the religious way.
It treats the person based on actuality. Secular values focus on
practical orientation and independent efforts. These values focus
on scientific facts. It emphasizes that there is no superior or inferior
caste; i n the same way, there is no superior or inferior religion. All
human beings are equal and should be treated in the same
manner.
9) Spiritual Values : Spirituality refers to the concept of value, soul
or feelings that we have in our inner hearts. Out of the limitations of
physical life, there is a limitless world, where a person works from
his real satisfaction or inner satisfaction and, for the satisfaction of
others. The things, which really affect human beings. are called
spiritual things. The spiritual va lue for managers suggests having a
higher level of consciousness, which means that a manager must
be aware of the positive and negative effects of his action and
decisions undertaken, which are consciously performed.
4.5 LINKING AN INDIVIDUALS PERSONALITY AND
VALUES TO THE WORKPLACE
There is a kind of relationship exists between individual’s
personality with value and their job performance in the workplace.
High personality on values has high performance in the job. It
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managers concern is more towards how to match the personality
and values and jobs so that both organization and employees will
be relatively benefited. The relationship between personality and
job is firs t explain by John Holland offering Personality -Job Fit
Theory and is the Person -Organization Fit Theory.
4.5.1. Personality Job Fit Theory
John Holland present six personality types and proposes that
satisfaction and propensity to leave a job depend on ho w well
individuals match their personalities to a job. The following table
describes the six types, their personality characteristics, and
examples of the congruent occupation for each.
According to the theory of Holland, satisfaction is highest and
turnov er is lowest when personality and occupation are on
agreement. A realistic person in a realistic job is in a more
congruent situation than a realistic person in an investigative job. A
realistic person in a social job is in the most in -congruent situation
possible. The key points of this model are that
There do appear to be intrinsic differences in personality
among individuals. There are different types of jobs . People in jobs
congruent with their personality should be more satisfied and less
likely to vol untarily resign than people in in -congruent jobs.
Holland Idea of Personality and Congruent (Matching)
Occupations
Types Personality Characteristics Congruent Occupations
Realistic
Prefer physical
activities that require
skill, strength and
coordination. Shy, genuine,
persistent, stable,
conforming, practical Mechanic, drill
press operator,
assembly -line
worker, farmer.
Investigative
Prefers activities that
involve thinking,
organizing and
understanding. Analytical, original,
curious, independent. Biologist,
economist,
mathematician,
news reporter.
Social
Prefer activities that
involve helping and
developing others. Sociable, friendly,
cooperative,
understanding. Social worker,
teacher,
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Conventional
Prefers rule -regulated,
orderly, and
unambiguous activities. Conforming, efficient,
practical,
unimaginative, and
inflexible. Accountant,
corporate
manager, bank
teller, file clerk.
Enterprising
Prefers verbal activities
in which there are
opportunities to
influence others and
attain power. Self-
confident, ambitious,
energetic,
domineering. Lawyer, real
estate agent,
public relations
specialist,
business
manager.
Artistic
Prefers ambiguous and
unsystematic activities
that allow creative
expression. Imagina tive,
disorderly, idealistic,
emotional,
impractical. Painter,
musician, writer,
interior
decorator.
4.5.2. Person -Organization Fit Theory
According to this theory, if an organization faces a dynamic
and changing environment and requires employees who are able to
do readily change tasks and move easily between teams, it’s more
important that employees’ personalities fit with the overall
organization’s culture than with the characteristics of any specific
job.
The person -organization fit essentially argu es that people are
attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values,
and they leave organizations that are not compatible with their
personalities. Moreover, managers could expect that people high
on extra -version fit well with aggressive and team -oriented cultures
and that people high on agreeableness match up better with a
supportive organizational climate than one focuses on
aggressiveness. And people high on openness to experience fit
better into organizations that emphasize innovation rather than
standardization. Following these guidelines, at the time of hiring,
manager should lead to select new employee who fit better with the
organization’s culture, which should result in higher employee
satisfaction and reduction turnover. Research on person -
organization fit has also looked whether people’s values match the
organization’s culture or not this match predicts job satisfaction,
commitment to the organization, and low turnover. (Robbins, S.P.
et. Al. (2012).
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4.6 WHAT IS PERCEPTION
Perception (from Latin perceptio 'gathering, receiving') is the
organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory
information in order to represent and understand the presented
information or environment. All perception involves signals that go
through the nervous system, which in turn result from physical or
chemical stimulation of the sensory system. Vision involves light
striking the retina of the eye; smell is mediated by odor molecules;
and hearing involves pressure waves.
Perception is not o nly the passive receipt of these signals, but
it is also shaped by the recipient's learning, memory, expectation,
and attention. Sensory input is a process that transforms this low -
level information to higher -level information (e.g., extracts shapes
for ob ject recognition). The process that follows connects a
person's concepts and expectations (or knowledge), restorative and
selective mechanisms (such as attention) that influence perception.
Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous
system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this
processing happens outside conscious awareness. Since the rise
of experimental psychology in the 19th century, psychology's
understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety
of techniques. Psychophysics quantitatively describes the
relationships between the physical qualities of the sensory input
and perception. Sensory neuroscience studies the neural
mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also
be studied computationally, i n terms of the information they
process. Perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to
which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in
objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver.
Although people traditionally viewed t he senses as passive
receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has
demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre -
consciously attempt to make sense of their input. There is still
active debate about the extent to which perce ption is an active
process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether
realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process
unnecessary.
The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see
the world around them as stable, even though the sensory
information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying. Human and
animal brains are structured in a modular way, with different areas
processing different kinds of sensory information. Some of these
modules take the form of sensor y maps, mapping some aspect of
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modules are interconnected and influence each other. For instance,
taste is strongly influenced by smell.
4.7 PERSON PERCEPTION: MAKING JUDGMENTS
ABOUT OTHERS
4.7.1 Attribution Theory:
While observing people’s behavior such as getting an
overseas assignment or promotion to top management position or
failed miserably in university examination or fired from the employer
etc, we attempt to determine whether it was int ernally caused or
external caused. If those factors such as knowledge, skill, effort,
talent, hard work, positive attitude are responsible for the
occurrence of behavior, it is labeled as internally caused. Internally
caused behaviors are those that are be lieved to be under the
personal control of the individual. If those factors such as situational
factors such as location advantage, non availability of material,
contacts with influential others, etc are responsible for the
occurrence of behavior, it is la beled as externally caused.
Externally caused behavior is seen as resulting from outside
causes; that is, the person is seen as forced into the behavior by
the situation.
If an employee is late for work, one can attribute his late
coming due to laziness o r lack of interest in the job of over
sleeping. This would be internal interpretation. If an employee late
coming is due to traffic jam or road accident or his wife sickness,
then he is making external attribution. There are three factors which
are used to determine whether the behavior is caused by internal
factors or due to external factors. They are: Distinctiveness,
Consensus and Consistency.
Distinctiveness:
It refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in
different situations. If a person is coming late not only to office but
also to picnic party or to birth day party or to attending meeting etc.
If his late coming behavior is not unique, it will probably be judged
as internal. (Low Distinctiveness) If his late coming behavior is
unusual, that is, only to office work, his late coming behavior is due
to external attribution. (High Distinctiveness)
Consensus:
It refers to whether all the people who are facing with a similar
situation respond in the same way or not. If all the people ar e
responding the same way, then there is high consensus. If
consensus is high, then his late coming behavior is due to external
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there is low consensus. If consensus is low, then his lat e coming is
due to internal factor
Consistency:
It refers whether a person responds the same all the time, that
is, whether his late coming is common in all the days or once in a
blue moon. If his late coming is reported in all the days, then there
is hig h consistency. If there is high consistency, his late coming
behavior is due to internal factor. If his late coming is reported only
one time, then there is low consistency. If there is low consistency,
then his late coming is due to external factors. The more consistent
the behavior, the more the observer is inclined to attribute it to
internal factors.
4.7.2 Errors in Attribution:
While attributing the causes for the behavior of individuals,
people tend to commit two types of errors.
Fundamental Attribution Error:
There is tendency to underestimate the influence of external
factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when
making judgment about the behavior of others particularly with
reference to the victims of accidents or failures . This is called the
fundamental attribution errors. For example, a sales manager is
likely to attribute the poor performance of his sales agents to
laziness rather than to the new product line introduced by the
competitor or current recession prevailing i n the society etc.
Self-Serving Bias:
There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own
success to internal factors such as ability or effort, while putting the
blame for failure on external factors such as luck or fate. This is
called the self-serving bias. While assessing the performance of
subordinates, the managers are likely to provide feedback in a
distorted manner depending on whether it is positive or negative.
4.8 THE LINK BETWEEN PERCEPTION AND
INDIVIDUAL DECISION MAKING
Perception is the process of gathering, organizing, and interpreting
of sensory information in order to represent and understand the
presented information or the environment. Decision making is the
process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the
values, performance, and beliefs of the decision maker.
Every individual face a point where he expected to make an
important decision from Avast array of alternatives. An individual is
required to go through all the alternatives and make a rati onal munotes.in
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decision. But people cannot process all the information and
scrutinize every single problem. As a result, they make a habit
deciding on the basis of perception so we can argue that there is a
link between perception and decision making.
On the basis of perception, individuals make decisions towards
continuations or termination makes decisions towards continuation
or termination, make behavior pattern at the workplace and with
supervisors managers and team member, Thus, the perception
theorie s are much useful in organizational decision making.
Decisions are influenced in most of the cases by individuals
behavior, perception effects on behavior. Therefore perception is
closely associated with individuals' decision -making process. There
are thr ee theories of individual decision making.
Classical or rational decision making
These modules describe how individuals should behave in
order to maximize some outcomes this module assume that best
decision maker is rational.
Assumptions of this modules
• The decision maker can easily analysis the problem
• Performance clearly constant and stable.
• The decision maker has complete information.
• The decision maker is capable to find out best alternatives
solution and choosing the best option.
People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality
is, not on reality itself, it is possible that two persons can see the
same thing and interpret it differently. Based on the above, the
following are some factors that affect perception and hence, it
affects decision making process:
a. Selective Perception:
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their
interest, background, experience, and attitudes. This factor allow
people to speed -read others but not without the risk of drawing an
in accurate picture. Hence, people’s decision will be impaired by
wrong perception.
b. Halo (Horns) Effect:
People are drawing a general impression about an individual
on the basis of a single characteristic. This will negatively affect
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c. Contrast Effects:
It is evaluations of a person’s characteristics that are affected
by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank
higher or lower on the same characteristics. This factor also affects
decisions quality.
d. Stereotyping:
It is judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the
group to which that person belongs. People rely on generalizations
ever day because they help them make decisions quickly. They are
a means simplifying a complex world. This will affect decision
making process.
e. Rationality:
People are usually content to find an acceptable or
reasonable solution to a problem rather than an optimal one. The
process of making decisions using rationality rather than a defined
prescriptive model in not effective enoug h in taking the best
decision.
f. Bounded Rationality:
Individuals make decisions by constructing simplified models
that extract the essential features from problems without capturing
all their complexity. So, people seek decisions that are satisfactory
and sufficient. They tend to choose the first acceptable solution
encountered rather than the optimal one. This may not ensure the
best decisions.
g. Intuitive Decision Making:
intuition is often used when there is a high level of uncertainty,
there is little precedent to go on, when the variable in question are
less predictable, when facts are limited, these facts don’t lead you
in one particular direction, data is of little use, when there are
several plausible choices, and there is time pressure. It m ay be
used in decision making process when all given factors are
ambiguous.
h. Overconfidence Bias:
We tend to be overly optimistic especially when our intellect
and interpersonal abilities are low. This wrong perception will lead
to wrong decisions.
i. An choring Bias:
It is the tendency to focus on initial information as a starting
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amount of emphasis to the first information it receives. This results
in not to take the optimal decisions.
j. Confirmation Bias:
we tend to selectively seek out information that reaffirms our
past choices and we discount information that contradicts our past
judgments. This could happen even it we are not sure that this is
the optimal choice.
K. Gender:
women tend to analyse decisions more than men. Women
tend to analyse a decision prior to and after the fact. This difference
in length of thinking in problems will lead to more accuracy in
making decisions as well as much time consumed for taking a
decision by women .
4.9 SUMMERY
In this unit, we have discussed various theories of personality. We
began with Freud’s theory of psychoanalyses in which he had
explained the division of mind, personality structure divided into
three parts – id, ego and superego, five psychosexual
develop mental stages of personality – oral, anal, phallic latency and
genital stage, and based on the conflicts and anxieties faced during
these developmental stages, people use various defense
mechanisms such as projection, reaction formation, denial,
regression , rationalization and displacement. These defense
mechanisms can be useful to alleviate anxiety, only if they are used
in moderation. If they are used in excess they can lead to
maladjustment.
However, Freud’s theory has been criticized on various count s by
Neo- Freudians as well as Humanistic psychologists. Though Neo -
Freudians could not shake themselves away from Freud’s ideas
completely but they significantly held different views. They said that
they don’t completely agree with Freud’s idea that sexu ality
explains everything. They either modified, extended or revised
Freud’s original psychoanalytic theory and emphasized the role of
social, cultural and interpersonal factors also in shaping the
personality. Some of the most well known Neo -Freudians are Alfred
Adler, Karen Horney and Carl Jung. While Freud assumed that
people have no choice in shaping their personality, Adler believed
that peo ple are largely responsible for who they are and they are
driven by need reduce inferiority complex. Freud assume d that
present behavior is caused by past experiences while Adler
believed that present behavior is shaped by people’s view of the
future. Unlike Freud’s emphasis on unconscious mind, Adler
believed that psychologically healthy people are usually aware of
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We have seen Major Personality Attributes Relevant to OB link
Locus of Control , Machiavellianism, Self -esteem, Self -monitoring,
Risk taking. We hav e also Seen Values with it definition , types and
nature. Also We have discussed the perception and its importance
in decision making
4.10 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss personality framework in brief
2. Write brief note on Developmental Stages of Personality
3. Write detail note on Value
4. How per ception influence our decision making
4.11 REFERENCES
Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International edition.
New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013
Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt ltd.
Robbins, S. P. Judge, T. A. (2019). Essentials of Organizational
Behavior. (14th ed.). Indian subcontinent reprint, Pearson India
Education Services
http://managementporta l.blogspot.com/2013/05/person -perception -
making -judgment -about.html
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/organizational_behavior/organization
al_behavior_personality.htm
https://analysisproject.blogspot.com/2019/04/linking -individuals -
personality -and.html
https:/ /www.dynamicstudyhub.com/2021/08/values -meaning -
definition -nature.html
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5
EMOTIONS
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 What Are Emotions a nd Moods?
5.2.1 Expressed Emotion:
5.2.2 Experienced Emotions: Anger and Happiness
5.3 Sources of Emotions and Moods
5.4 Emotional Labor
5.4.1 What Impact Does Emotional Labors Have an Employee’s?
5.5 Affective Events Theory
5.5.1 Factors Affecting Employee Experience At Work
5.6 Emotional Intelligence
5.6.1 Characteristics of Emotional Intelligent Person:
5.7 Emotion Regulation
5.7.1 How We Control Our Emotions
5.7.2 Strategies to Emotion Regulation
5.8. Ob Applications of Emotions and Moods
5.9 Summery
5.10 Questions
5.11 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
The concept of Emotion
The Sources of Emotions and Moods
The concept Emotional Intelligence
Applications of Emotions and Moods in OB
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5.1 INTRODUCTION
Emotions are responsible for the finest inhuman achievement and
for the worst in history. They are the source of pleasure as well as
sorrow in our life. Negative and long lasting emotions can make us
sick. So, what are emotions? Emotions are our body’s adaptive
response. They exist to give us support for our survival. When we
are faced with a challenge, emotions focus our attention and
energize our actions. (Cyders & Smith,2008).Emotions are a mix of
bodily arousal (heart pounding), expressive behaviors (quickened
pace) and conscious experience, including thoughts and feelings
(panic, fear, joy). (Mayers D.G.,2013)
5.2 WHAT ARE EMOT IONS AND MOODS?
At some point in every person's life, people have experienced
emotions and moods of happiness, sorrow, anger, positivity, or
negativity. These experiences can be brought upon by a number of
causes, and each is reflected by the individual o ver a period of
time. The psychological process of expressing moods and
emotions is a natural occurrence throughout many peoples' lives.
How are moods and emotions different? The most basic answer is
the amount of time that each expression of mood vs. emo tion takes
place for. An emotion is a short -lived feeling that comes from a
known cause, or the way a person feels at a particular time.
Emotions can determine how a person acts for a period of time
through their body language, sudden facial expressions, a nd
decision making. A mood takes place for a longer period of time
and has no clear or identifiable beginning of formation. Moods are
typically prolonged instances of multiple emotions, though they may
not be shown as strongly.
To exemplify the definition s of moods vs. emotions, imagine the
following scenario: Craig was just hired for his dream job as a home
designer. The benefits he will receive from this job are fantastic,
and he believes that he will be able to support his growing family
well for years to come. In the immediate present and for a short
time after receiving the big news, Craig experiences emotions of
happiness and joy. After working long hours for a few years, Craig
feels that he does not have much upward -mobility in his company,
nor does he get to see his family very often. Craig comes home
from work each night in a negative mood because of these
prolonged factors. In order to have a more positive and healthy
mood and lifestyle, Craig takes a position as a self -employed
designer where he c an set his own hours and spend more time with
his family.
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5.2.1 Expressed Emotion :
A.) Detecting Emotions in Others :
To determine other people’s emotions we read their bodies, listen
to their voice tones and study their faces. Psychologists wondered
whether non -verbal language differs according to our culture and
can our expressions influence our experienced emotions. For
example, in western culture, a firm handshake conveys an
outgoing, expressive personality. A gaze, an averted glance or a
stare indicates intimacy, submission or dominance. In a study,
male -female pairs who were total strangers to each other, were
asked to gaze intently at each other for two minutes. They reported
feeling a tingle of attraction towards each other.
Most of us read nonverbal cues well. We are especially good at
detecting nonverbal threats. In a crowd of faces, a single angry face
is ident ified much faster than a single happy face. Experience can
also sensitize us to particular emotions, e.g., viewing a series of
faces depicting anger to fear, physically abused children were
much quicker to spot the signals of anger than non -abused
children . Hard to control facial muscles reveal signs of emotions
that a person may be trying to hide, e.g., eyebrows raised and
pulled together signal fear. Our brains are very good detectors of
subtle expressions. Seeing a face for just 0.1 seconds also enabled
people to judge attractiveness or trustworthiness of a person (Willis
& Todorov,2006). It is rightly said that first impression occurs at
lightning speed. Despite our brain’s emotion detecting skills, it is
difficult to detect deceiving expressions. The be havioral differences
between liars and truth -tellers are too minute for most people to
detect. However, some people are much better emotion detectors
(especially introverts) than others. It is difficult to detect emotions
from written communication because it does not have gestures,
facial features and voice tones to help detection of emotions.
Electronic communication also provides very poor quality nonverbal
cues. That is why, people often use emoticons.
Lie Detection :
It is a common practice for resear chers and crime detectors to use
lie detector - polygraph to detect the lies. The question arises how
effective and reliable is polygraph in detecting lies. The polygraph
works on the principle that certain emotion -linked bodily changes,
such as changes in breathing, cardiovascular activity and
perspiration changes take place when a person tells a lie, even if
that person can control his facial expressions. The tester/examiner
asks questions to the testee and observes these bodily changes
taking place in the testee while answering the questions. The tester
starts questioning with certain question that may make any person
nervous and polygraph will show signs of arousal. These are called
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have yo u taken anything that does not belong to you? The arousal
level shown on a polygraph, in response to these control questions
serves as the base line. Then the tester will ask the critical
questions, e.g., have you stolen anything from your previous
employe r? The arousal level shown on polygraph in response to
this question will indicate whether the person is telling the truth or
lying. For example, if the arousal level while answering the critical
question is weaker than the base line arousal determined bef ore,
then we can say that person is telling the truth. On the other hand,
if the arousal shown in response to critical question is more than
base line arousal that means the person is telling the lie.
B.) Gender, Emotion and Nonverbal Behavior :
Studies have proved that women are better at reading emotional
cues than men, even if they are exposed to very little behavior of
the other person, e.g., they can detect whether a male -female
couple is a genuine romantic couple or just pretending one(Barnes
& Ster nberg, 1989). Women’s nonverbal sensitivity is due to their
greater emotional literacy and they more emotionally responsive.
For example, in an experiment on emotional literacy, when men
were asked how will they feel saying good bye to a friend, they
simply said, “I will feel bad”, while women said “It will be
bittersweet; I’ll feel both happy and sad”.(Barrett et.al., 2000). A
study of people from 26 cultures found that women reported
themselves as more open to feelings than men. (Costa et.al. 2001).
This c learly indicates that women are more emotional than men.
However, generally, people tend to attribute women’s reactions to
their emotions while men’s reactions to their circumstances, except
for the feeling of anger. Anger is considered as more masculine
emotion. Surveys showed that women are more likely to describe
themselves as empathic. Their heart rate goes up and they are
more likely to cry when they see someone in distress.
C.) Culture and Emotional Expression :
Studies have shown that there are universal facial expressions for
basic emotions across different cultures. Facial muscles speak a
universal language. In entire world, children cry when in distress
and smile when they are happy. Even people blind from bir th,
naturally show the common facial expressions linked with emotions
such as joy, sadness, fear and anger. Musical expressions also cut
across cultures. In all cultures, fast paced music seems to be happy
one and slow music is considered as sad one.
Charles Darwin said that in prehistoric times, before our ancestors
communicated through words, they communicated threats,
greetings and submission through facial expressions. Their shared
expressions help in their survival. Emotional expressions help in
our survival in other ways also, e.g., surprise raises the eyebrows
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However, it is observed that people are more accurate in judging
emotions from their own culture, and there are cultural differenc es
in how much emotion will be expressed. For example, in western
culture, people openly show their emotions while in Asian cultures,
people tend to have less visible display of their emotions.
D.) The Effects of facial Expression:
Studies indicate that expressions not only communicate emotions,
they also amplify and regulate them. People report feeling more
fear than any other emotion, when made to construct a fearful
expression. It is said smile warmly on the outside and you will f eel
better on the inside. So, your face feeds your feelings. In an
experiment, depressed patients felt better after getting Botox
injections that paralyze the frowning muscles. Similarly, it is
reported that people see ambiguous behaviors differently
depen ding on which finger they move up and down while reading a
story. If they read the story, while moving an extended middle
finger, the story behaviors seemed more hostile. If read with a
thumb up, they seemed more positive.
5.2.2 Experienced Emotions: Ange r and Happiness
The experience of emotions in human beings can be placed on two
dimensions – Positive vs. Negative and Low Arousal vs High
Arousal . Any emotion is a combination of these two dimensions.
For example, if we take emotion of anger, then enraged is angrier
than angry (at arousal level) and it is a negative feeling. Let us
discuss two of the most noticeable and pervasive emotions that
impacts our lives. These are anger and happiness.
Anger:
Ancient wisdom describes anger as ‘a short madn ess’. It says that
anger ‘carries the mind away’ and can be ‘many times more hurtful
than the injury that caused it’. In other words, it is trying to say that
when we are angry, we can’t think rationally and may do or say
things that ultimately causes more misery to us. However,
Shakespeare held a different view and said that noble anger makes
a coward person brave and energizes us. Who is correct? The
answer is both are right. Anger can harm us. Studies have shown
that chronic hostility can cause heart dis ease, blood pressure, lead
to impaired social relationships and may even shorten our lives.
The question arises can we get rid of our anger? If yes, then
how?
Gender Differences: A Gallup teen survey showed that there
are gender differences in dealing with anger. It reported that to get
rid of their anger, boys usually move away from the situation that is
causing them anger, they do lot of physical activities such as
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with their anger by t alking to a friend, listening to music or writing
down in diary or journal.
Cultural Differences: Western culture, a predominantly an
individualistic culture, believes that people should vent their anger,
because internalizing the feeling of anger is more harmful. In fact,
‘recovery’ therapists encourage people to vent their rage against
our dead paren ts, confront our childhood abuser and curse our
boss in our imagination. Keeping anger within us is considered bad
for our mental and physical health. Western culture believes that
venting out of anger can be done through emotional release (either
through aggressive act or through imaginary act) or catharsis.
There is some empirical support for this line of thinking. Studies do
show that sometimes, not always, the anger subsides when people
retaliate against a provoker. But anger subsides only if a person
counterattacks directly his provoker, retaliation is justifiable, their
target is not intimidating (Geen et.al., 1977) and if they do not feel
anxious or guilty later on. If anger led physical or verbal acts
generate regret later on, it becomes maladaptive.
However, catharsis often fails to erase our feeling of rage.
There can be some reasons for it
1. Expressing anger may strengthen the anger instead of
reducing it : e.g., in case of road -rage. Ebbesen et . al. (1975)
conducted an experiment on laid off employees. They were allowed
to vent their hostility and later on given chance to express their
attitude towards the company. Compared to those laid off
employees who were not given a chance to vent their ho stility in
initial questionnaire, it was found that employees who were given
such a chance in first questionnaire, expressed more hostility. Their
hostility increased instead of reducing. Similar results were reported
by another study. Brad Bushman (2002) rightly said that venting to
reduce anger is like using petrol to put out a fire.
2. It may provoke retaliation and a minor conflict may turn
into major confrontation : In Asian culture, which is a community
culture, giving vent to your aggression in this manner is considered
bad. People don’t give went to their rage because they derive their
identity from the group and have a sense of interdependence. Such
people consider venting their anger as a threat to group harmony.
3. Angry outbursts are dangerous in another way : They may
temporarily calm us but this may act as reinforcement and so may
be habit forming.
4. Anger can lead to prejudice : Americans developed prejudice
against immigrants and Muslims after 9/11.
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Techniques to Control Anger:
1. Wait before reacting. You can bring down the level of
physiological arousal of anger by waiting.
2. Don’t ruminate. Ruminating inwardly serves to increase it
3. Calm yourself by exercising, playing an instrument or talking it
through with a friend.
4. Anger when used wisely can be a strength and can benefit the
relationship. Express the grievances in ways that promotes
reconciliation rather than retaliation.
5. Talk th ings over with the offender, thereby reducing the
aggravation. Be civil but assertive.
6. If conflict can’t be resolved, use forgiveness. Forgiveness
releases anger and calms the body.
Happiness :
Happiness is a state of mind or a feeling of contentment,
satisfaction, pleasure, or joy. ’Positive psychology, describes
happiness as a high ratio of positive to negative feelings or sense
of satisfaction with life.
A) Importance of Happiness in Our Lives:
Happiness/ unhappiness has tremendous impact on each and
every aspect of our lives. This impact can be temporary or long
lasting, mild or severe. Psychologists have been investigating the
difference between happy and unhappy people and how it affects
them. Some of the conclusions a re that happy people perceive the
world as safer and they feel more confident, make decisions and
cooperate more easily, are more tolerant, rate job applicants more
favorably, savor their positive past experiences without thinking too
much on the negative aspects, are more socially connected , live
healthier and more energized and satisfied lives (Mauss et.al.,
2011) , earn significantly more money (Diener et.al.,2002) .
Baas et.al. (2008) stated that when your mood is gloomy, life as a
whole seems depressing and meaningless, you are critical of your
surroundings and thinking is skeptical, in such a situation, if you put
in efforts to brighten your mood, your thinking will get broadened
and you will become more playful and creative. In other words, you
will get transferred from unhappy state to happy state. When we
are happy, our relationships, self -image, and hopes for the future
also seem more positive.
Feel - Good, Do - Good Phenomenon: Many research studies
have reported that happiness doesn’t just feel good, it does good,
e.g., in many studies, mood boosting experiences (such as finding
money, recalling a happy event, etc.) had made people more likely
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and do other good deeds. Reverse of feel good and do good was
also found to be true. When you do good for someone, you feel
good.
B) The Short Life of Emotional Ups and Downs:
Studies have shown that over t he long run, our emotional ups and
downs tend to balance out, not only over the days but also during
the day. Positive emotion rises over the early to middle part of most
days and then drops off. A stressful event can trigger a bad mood,
but by the next da y, the gloom almost always lifts. Even when
negative event persists for longer period, our bad mood usually
ends. For example, romantic breakup feels devastating, but
eventually the emotional wound heals and we move on in life.
Grief over the loss of a l oved one or anxiety after a severe trauma
such as child abuse, rape, or the terrors of war, may last for longer
period, but eventually we get over it. No tragedy is permanently
depressing. People who become blind or get paralyzed too recover
near normal le vels of day to day happiness.
People cope well with a permanent disability, though they do not
rebound back to former emotions of happiness and well -being. A
major disability leaves people less happy than average, yet much
happier than able bodied peopl e suffering from depression. Bruno
et.al. (2008) commented that most patients “locked -in” motionless
body( being in coma) do not say they want to die. The fact is that
we overestimate the duration of our emotions and underestimate
our resiliency and capaci ty to adapt.
C.) Wealth and Well -Being:
To some extent, wealth does correlate with well -being, e.g., rich
people are typically happier, healthier than poor people who lack
control over their lives. Money can help to get out of hunger and
hopelessness and also buy happiness. But once you have sufficient
money for comfort and security, adding more money does not add
to more happiness. This is because of diminishing returns of
phenomenon. The power of m ore money to increase happiness is
significant at low incomes and diminishes as income rises. In every
culture, those who strive hardest for wealth tend to live with lower
well-being, especially if they are seeking money to prove
themselves, gain power or show -off rather than support their
families.
D)Two Psychological Phenomena - Adaption and Comparison:
There are two psychological phenomena that explain why
happiness is relative. These are Adaptation and Comparison. Let
us understand these two principles –
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1) The Adaptation -Level phenomenon: This principle suggests
that we have a natural tendency to judge various stimuli in
comparison to our past experiences. Harry Helson (1977) explain
this phenomenon by explaining that on the basis of our past
experience, we all reach certain neutral levels for everything , e.g.,
there are certain levels at which we will not find sounds either too
loud or soft, temperatures as too high or low , events as pleasant or
unpleasant. We will feel just neutral about them. Once these neutral
points are developed, then we judge any new events or variations
in existing events in comparison to these levels, e.g., if temperature
goes higher than our neutral point temperature, then we find
temperature too hot for our comfort.
Similarly, if compared to our present income we get higher income,
we feel a temporary surge in our happiness, but later this new high
becomes the new normal level and then to again feel happy we will
require income more than this new normal level also. Same is true
for other areas such as academic rewards, social prestige, etc. For
example, do you remember, the thrill you had when cordless
phones came in the market and you owned one (Tho se phones
worked only within a limited range of landline phones, giving you
very little flexibility). Later, mobile phones came into market and
they gave you the freedom to talk to anyone even while traveling far
away from your home. At that stage you were no more thrilled with
cordless phones. Afterwards, mobiles got upgraded to smart
phones and now you could not only talk with mobile phone but
could also do lot more like using internet on phone. Now does
ordinary mobile phone gives you any happiness or ex citement? The
answer will be no. This is exactly what the psychologists meant
when they said happiness is relative to our own experiences.
There is no permanent happiness. Tomorrow, suppose you get a
chance to live in an ideal world where you don’t have any economic
worries or health worries and your near dear ones give you
unconditional love. You will be elated, but after some time you will
adjust your adaptation level and this new wo rld will become your
new normal . Now you will feel satisfied if event s exceed your
expectations or you will feel dissatisfied if these events fall below
your expectations. The point is that satisfaction or dissatisfaction
are just our judgments based on our past experiences.
2) Comparison -Relative Deprivation: We alway s compare
ourselves to others and our feeling of good or bad depends upon
with whom we are comparing. Seeing many others getting rich may
create a sense of relative deprivation. Such comparisons are the
reason why rich people are more satisfied with life than the poor
people. However, Russell (1930,p90) noted very aptly that
“Beggars do not envy millionaires, though of course they will envy
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those who are better off creates envy and comparing ourselves with
those who are worse off creates contentment.
E) Predictors of Happiness:
Happy people share many characteristics such as they have high
esteem , are optimistic, outgoing and agreeable , have close
relationships or a satisfying marriage , have work and leisure that
engages their skills , have an active religious faith , sleep well and
exercise Research shows that age, gender, parenthood and
physical attractiveness has no link with happiness, but genes
matter .
Heritability: In one study of identical and fraternal twins, it was
found that about 50% of the difference among people’s happiness
ratings was heritable. Other studies have also indicated that
identical twins raised apart are often similarly happy.
Personal History and Culture: On the personal level, we already
know that our emotions tend to balance around a level defined by
our experiences. On the cultural level, groups differ in the traits that
they value. For example, self -esteem and achievement are more
important to Westerners due to emphasis on individualism. Social
acceptance and harmony are more important for people living in
communal cultures such as Japan, where family and community is
more important than personal achievements. However, apart from
our genes, studies indicate that relationship quality is also an
important determinant of our happiness.
So, depending on our genes, our values, our recent experiences,
our happiness seems to fluctuate around our “happiness set point”.
Due to this some people are a lways happy while others are always
negative. However, psychologists believe that our satisfaction with
our lives is not fixed. Happiness can increase or decrease. It can be
influenced by factors under our control.
5.3 SOURCES OF EMOTIONS AND MOODS
Emotions and moods can be caused by many reasons.
Personality : As all individuals, we must have built -in tendencies to
experience certain moods and emotions more frequently than
others do. We also differ in how intensely we experience the same
emotion, wh ile those who are affectively intense, experience good
and bad moods and emotions more deeply.
Day of the week or time of the day : You will have guessed by
now that people tend to be in their worst moods early in the week
and in their best moods late in t he week. Monday morning is
therefore not the best time to reveal bad news or ask someone for
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Weather : Have you heard of illusory correlation? It is the tendency
of people to associate two events when in reality there is no
connection. Many peopl e think so, but the weather has little
influence on our mood.
Stress : Stress can affect our moods and emotions negatively. The
effects build over time and constant levels of stress can worsen our
moods and emotions.
Social activities : For most us, social activities increase positive
mood and have little effect on negative mood. Positive mood seeks
out social interactions. Physical, informal and epicurean activities
are more strongly related to positive moods than formal and
sedentary events.
Sleep : Sleep quality does affect mood. If you are tired, you are
more likely to feel fatigue, anger and hostility, and therefore, it can
impair decision -making and make it difficult to control emotions.
Exercise : Exercise enhances our positive mood. This is especiall y
good for depressed people.
Age: Negative emotions seem to occur less, as people get older.
Highly positive moods last longer for older individuals while bad
moods fade more quickly than for younger people. Emotional
experience improves with age.
Gender : Women are more emotionally expressive than men. They
experience them more intensely and hold onto emotions longer
than men. They display more frequent expressions of positive and
negative emotions, except anger. This is because men are taught
to be tough and brave. Women are social and nurturing, so they
show more positive moods.
5.4 EMOTIONAL LABOR
Emotional labor is the process of managing feelings and
expressions to fulfill the emotio nal requirements of a job. More
specifically, workers are expected to regulate their emotions during
interactions with customers, co -workers and managers. This
includes analysis and decision making in terms of the expression of
emotion, whether actually felt or not, as well as its opposite: the
suppression of emotions that are felt but not expressed. This is
done so as to produce a certain feeling in the customer or client
that will allow the compan y or organization to succeed.
Roles that have been identified as requiring emotional labor include
those involved in public administration, law, childcare, health care,
social work, hospitality, media, and espionage. As particular
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expected to manage their emotions according to employer
demands when compared to sixty years ago.
Usage of the term has also been extended to refer to unpaid work
that is expected interpersonally, such as taking care of organizing
holiday events o r helping a friend solve their problems.
Definition of Emotional Labor
The sociologist Arlie Hochschild provided the first definition of
emotional labor, which is displaying certain emotions to meet the
requirements of a jo b. The related term emotion work (also called
"emotion management") refers to displaying certain emotions for
personal purposes, such as within the private sphere of one's home
or interactions with family and friends. Hochschild identified three
emotion regulation strategies: cognit ive, bodily, and expressive.
Within cognitive emotion work, one attempts to change images,
ideas, or thoughts in hopes of changing the f eelings associated with
them. For example, one may associate a family picture with feeling
happy and think about said picture whenever attempting to feel
happy. Within bodily emotion work, one attempts to change
physical symptoms in order to create a desired emotion. For
example, one may attempt deep breathing in order to reduce anger.
Within expressive emotion work, one attempt s to change
expressive gestures to change inner feelings, such as smili ng when
trying to feel happy.
While emotion work happens within the private sphere, emotional
labor is emotion management within the workplace according to
employer expectations. Jobs involving emotional labor are defined
as those that:
Require face-to-face or voice -to-voice contact with the public.
Require the worker to produce an emotional state in another
person.
Allow the employer, through training and supervision, to
exercise a degree of control over the emoti onal activities of
employees.
Hochschild (1983) argues that within this commodification process,
service workers are estranged from their o wn feelings in the
workplace.
5.4.1 What Impact does emotional labors have an employee’s?
Emotional labor and emotional dissonance affect how an employee
performs at work. Emotional labor is an indicator of how employees
can handle adversity at work if they let their emotions hurt their
work. Emotional dissonance occurs when employees are no t able
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to job performance. Managers can identify workers who are having
emotional dissonance and provide an outlet and training to help
them deal with personal issues. This way, the employee is able to
perform on the job positively by solving personal issues. Employees
who are able to utilize deep acting are very productive, positive and
are able to avoid job burnout. Harry was known for his positive
emotions at work and was Customer Service Rep of the Year for
his ability to calm disgruntled passengers and handle negative
stress
5.5 AFFECTIVE EVENTS THEORY
Affective events theory (AET) is a model developed by
organizational psychologists Howard M. Weiss (Georgia Institute of
Technology) and Russell Cropanzano (University of Colorado) to
explain how emotions and moods influence job perf ormance and
job satisfa ction. The model explains the linkages between
employees' internal influences (e.g., cognitions, emotions, mental
states) and their reactions to incidents that occur in their work
environment that affect their performance, organizational
commitment, and jo b satisfaction. The theory proposes that
affective work behaviors are explained by employee mood and
emotions, while cognitive -based behaviors are the best pr edictors
of job satisfaction. The theory proposes that positive -inducing (e.g.,
uplifts) as well a s negative -inducing (e.g., hassles) emotional
incidents at work are distinguishable and have a significant
psychological impact upon workers' job satisfaction. This results in
lasting internal (e.g., cognition, emotions, mental states) and
external affecti ve reactions exhibited through job performance, job
satisfaction, a nd organizational commitment.
Alternatively, some research suggests that job satisfaction
mediates the relationship between various antecedent variables
such as dispositions, workplace eve nts, job characteristics, job
opportunities, and employee behavior exhibited while on the job
(e.g., organizational citizenship behaviors, counter -productive work
behaviors, and job withdrawal). To that end, when workers
experience uplifts (e.g., completin g a goal, receiving an award) or
hassles (e.g., dealing with a difficult client, reacting to an updated
deadline), their intention to continue or quit depends upon the
emotions, moods, and thoughts associated with the satisfaction
they derive from their jo bs.
Other research has demonstrated that the relationship between job
satisfaction and turnover is fully mediated by intention to quit;
workers who report low job satisfaction are likely to e ngage in
planned quitting. However, this relationship does not a ccount for
employees who report high job satisfaction, but quit unexpectedly.
Although extrinsic rewards, such as better job offers outside their
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personality factors may also impact their deci sions to exit early from
otherwise ideal jobs under id eal working conditions.
Recipients often refer to specific events in exit interviews when
voluntarily leaving their current jobs. Minor events with subtle
emotional effects also have a cumulative impac t on job satisfaction,
particularly when they occur ac utely with high frequency. For
example, perceived stressful events at work are often positively
associated with high job strain on the day that they occur and
negatively associated with strain the day a fter, resulting in an
accumulation of perceived job-related stress over time. This is
consistent with the general understanding in vocational psychology
that job satisfaction is a distal, long -term outcome that is mediated
by perceived j ob stress.
5.5.1 Factors affecting employee experience at work
The relationships between components associated with work (e.g.,
tasks, autonomy, job demands, and emotional labor) and their
impac t on job outcomes support AET. Tasks that are considered
challenging, rewarding, or that provide an opportunity to develop
new skills induce positive affect and increase job satisfaction.
Alternatively, tasks that are rated as routine, boring, or
overwhelming are associated with negative affect (e.g., low self -
esteem, low se lf-confidence) and concerns ove r job evaluations.
This may lead workers to engage i n planned quitting behaviours.
The degree of autonomy workers have in their jobs affects their
productivity, satisfa ction, and intention to quit. Research shows that
the ab ility to make decisions and influence what happens on the job
has the greatest impact on job satisfaction, particu larly among
young male workers. Job autonomy even trumps incom e's effect on
job satisfaction. Alternatively, work overload significantly reduc es
job satisfaction among middle -aged women and men but does not
significantly impact job satisfa ction among young male workers.
These differences between the age and gender of workers indicate
differences in career phase, where young (male) workers are mo re
likely to put up with or expect work overload, while middle -aged
workers tend to be approaching their peak and may expect some
concessions (e.g., based on track record, merit, or currency to the
organization).
Likewise, work flexibility affect s job satisfaction. In fact, the flexibility
to decide when work is performed ranks number one among
women and number two or three among men in determining the
chara cteristics of a satisfying job. Similar to job autonomy, job
flexibility is more important than income wh en evaluating job
satisfaction. Flexibility to determine one's work schedule is an
important contributor to job satisfaction across the spectru m of low -
and high -income jobs. Work flexibility empowers employees by
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planned quitting to i mprove overall quality of life. Positive affect is a
fringe benefit of work flexibility that pays rich dividends to both
employees and their employers, empowering the former and
improving the abili ty of the latter to retain workers.
Past research has suggested that workplace affect was a state -
oriented construct (like emotions and mood) that depended upon
the work environment or s ituations encountered at work. However,
more recent research describe s affect as a dispositional trait that is
dependent upon the individual. Although workplace events have a
significant impact on employees, their mood largely determines the
intensity of their reaction to event s experienced at work. This
emotional response intensity tends to affect jo b performance and
satisfaction. Other employment variables, like effort, leaving,
deviance, commitment, and citizenship, are also affected by
positive and negative perceptions of events experienced at work.
General cognitive ab ility (also known as 'g') and personality also
influence job performance. Emotion and cognition help to explain
Organizational Citizenship Behaviours (OCB). For example,
emotions about one’s job (i.e., job affect) are strongly associated
with OCBs directed at individuals, while one’s thoughts or job
cognitions are reportedly more strongly associated with OCB s
directed at the organization. The outcome of how satisfied an
individual employee is with her/his job within the organization may
depend upon how s/he perceives an incident experienced at work.
Job satisfaction also depends upon the emotions and thoughts
associated with that perception, as well as the social support
provided by co -workers a nd the organization as a whole.
5.6 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Most psychologists have considered intelligence a cognitive ability,
people also use their emotions to help them solve problems and
relate effectively to others. Emotional intelligence refers to the
ability to accurately identify, assess, and understand emoti ons, as
well as to effectively control one’s own emotions (Feldman -Barrett
& Salovey, 2002; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000).
This concept was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer. According
to them, Intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own and others
emotions, to discriminate among emotions and to use the
information to guide one’s thinking and actions. The idea of
emotional intelligence is seen in Howard Gardner ‘s interpersonal
intelligence (the capacity to understand the emotions, intentions,
motivations, and desires of other people) and intrapersonal
intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, including one‘s
emotions).
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Emotional Quotient (EQ):
Emotio nal Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional
intelligence in the same way as Intelligent Quotient (IQ) is used to
express intelligence. Emotional Quotient (EQ) is a ratio concept
and is a score of emotional intelligence obtained by dividing
chronological age by emotional age and multiplying by 100. The
formula of Emotional Quotient (IQ) is given below.
Emotional Quotient (EQ) = Emotional Age/ Chronological Age*
100
Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate
appraisal, expression and regulation of emotions. It is the feeling
side of intelligence. A good IQ and scholastic record is not enough
to be successful in life. You may find many people who are
academically talented but are unsuccessful in their own life. They
experience probl ems in their life, workplace and interpersonal
relationships. What do they lack? Some psychologists believe that
the source of their difficulty may be lack of emotional intelligence. In
simple words, emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process
emotional information accurately and efficiently. There are some
characteristics of emotional intelligent person. Person who are high
on emotional intelligence who possess following c haracteristics.
5.6.1 Characteristics of Emotional Intelligent Person :
Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.
Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in
others by noting their body language, voice, tone and facial
express ions.
Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them
into account while solving problems and taking decisions.
Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity
of your emotions.
Control and regulate your emotions and their express ions
while dealing with self and others.
Daniel Goleman, an American author and journalist,
popularized the concept in his book Emotional Intelligence (1995).
He expanded the concept to include general social competence.
The importance of emotional intel ligence has been very well
brought out in the following words by Daniel Goleman “Emotional
Intelligence is a master aptitude, a capacity that profoundly affects
all other abilities, either facilitating or interfering with them.
According to Daniel Goleman the term encompasses has following
five characteristics and abilities:
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1) Self-Awareness : Knowing your emotions, recognizing feelings
as they occur, and discriminating between them.
2) Mood Management : Handling feelings so they're relevant to the
current situation and you react appropriately.
3) Self-Motivation : Gathering up your feelings and directing
yourself towards a goal, despite self -doubt, inertia, and
impulsiveness.
4) Empathy : Recognizing feelings in others and tuning into their
verbal and nonverbal c ues.
5) Managing relationships : Handling interpersonal interaction,
conflict resolution, and negotiations.
Thus , emotional intelligence is not same as self -esteem and
optimism. Rather emotionally intelligent people are both social and
self-aware. Those sco ring high on managing emotions enjoy
higher -quality interactions with friends (Lopes et.al.2004). They
avoid being hijacked by overwhelming depression, anxiety or
anger. Being sensitive to emotional cues, they know what to say to
soothe a grieving friend, encourage a colleague and manage
conflict.
Emotional intelligence is less a matter of conscious efforts and
more of one’s unconscious processing of emotional information.
(Fiori,2009). Across many studies in many countries, those scoring
high on emotion al intelligence showed somewhat better job
performance. They could also delay gratification in pursuit of long -
term rewards, rather than being overtaken by immediate impulses.
They were emotionally in tune with others and therefore often
succeeded in caree r, marriage and parenting.
5.7 EMOTION REGULATION
Emotional self -regulation or emotion regulation is the ability to
respond to the ongoing demands of experience with the range of
emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable and sufficiently
flexible to permit spontaneous reactions as well as the ability to
delay spo ntaneous reactions as needed. It can also be defined as
extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring,
evaluating, and m odifying emotional reactions. Emotional self -
regulatio n belongs to the broader set of emotion regulation
processes, which includes both the regulation of one's own feelings
and the regulation of o ther people's feelings.
Emotion regulation is a complex process that involves initiating,
inhibiting, or modulati ng one's state or behavior in a given situation
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responses (thoughts), emotion -related physiological responses (for
example heart rate or hormonal activity), and emotion -related
behavior (bodily actions or expressions). Functionally, emotion
regulation can also refer to processes such as the tendency to
focus one's attention to a task and the ability to suppress
inappropriate behavior under instruction. Emotion regulation is a
highly significant function in human life.
Every day, people are continually exposed to a wide variety of
potentially arousing stimuli. Inappropriate, extreme or unchecked
emotional reactions to such stimuli could impede functional fit within
society; therefore, people must engage in some form of emotion
regulation almost all of the time.[6] Generally speaking, emotion
dysregulation has been defined as difficulties in controlling the
influence of emotional arousal on the organization and quality of
thought s, actions, and int eractions. Individuals who are emotionally
dysregulated exhibit patterns of responding in which there is a
mismatch between their goals, responses, and/or modes of
expression, and the deman ds of the social environment. For
example, there is a significant a ssociation between emotion
dysregulation and symptoms of depression, anxiety, eating
pathology, and substance abuse. Higher levels of emotion
regulation are likely to be related to both high levels of social
competence and the expression of socially approp riate emotions.
5.7.1 How We Control Our Emotions
While there are many ways to influence one’s emotional state for
the better, emotion regulation often involves what experts call
“down -regulation,” or reducing the intensity of emotions. A grieving
person might down -regulate his sadness by recalling someth ing
amusing. An anxious person may cope by distracting herself from
the thought that is causing her anxiety. Emotion regulation can also
include “up -regulation,” or amping up one’s emotions, which can be
useful when an imminent danger or challenge calls fo r a healthy
dose of anxiety or excitement.
The process model of emotion regulation proposed by psychologist
James Gross emphasizes that people can act to control their
emotions at different points in time —including before they feel an
emotion (“antecedent -focused emotion regulation”) and after they
have already begun to react emotionally (“response -focused
emotion regulation”).
Why Emotion Regulation Is Important
Unlike small children, adults are expected to be able to manage
their emotions —especially anx iety and anger —in a manner that is
socially acceptable. When emotional control fails, people often say
or do things they later regret and wish they had been able to keep
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certain forms of ment al illness. Over time, it could have a negative
impact on one’s personal well -being and social relationships.
5.7.2 Strategies to Emotion Regulation
A. Situation selection
Situation selection involves choosing to avoid or approach an
emotionally relevant situation. If a person selects to avoid or
disengage from an emotionally relevant situation, he or she is
decreasing the likelihood of experiencing an emotion. Alternatively,
if a person selects to approach or engage with an emotionally
relevant situation, he or she is increasing the likelihood of
experiencing an emotion.
Typical examples of situation selection may be seen
interpersonally, such as when a parent removes his or her child
from an emoti onally unpleasant situation. Use of situation selection
may also be seen in psychopathology. For example, avoidance of
social situations to regulate emotions is particularly pronounced for
those with social anxiety disorder and av oidant personality disorder.
Effective situation selection is not always an easy ta sk. For
instance, humans display difficulties predicting their emotional
responses to future events. Therefore, they may have trouble
making accurate and appropriate decisions about which
emotionally relevant situati ons to approach or to avoid.
B. Situati on modification
Situation modification involves efforts to modify a situation so as to
change it s emotional impact. Situation modification refers
specifically to altering one's external, physical environment. Altering
one's "internal" environment to regula te emotion is called cognitive
change.
Examples of situation modification may include injecting humor into
a speech to elicit laughter or extending the physical distance
between oneself and another person.
C. Attentional deployment
Attentional deployment involves directing one's attention towards or
away from an emotional situation.
Distraction : Distraction, an example of attentional deployment,
is an early selection strategy, which involves diverting one's
attention away from an emotional stimulu s and t owards other
content. Distraction has been shown to red uce the intensity of
painful and emotional experiences, to decrease facial responding
and neural activation in the am ygdala associated with emotion, as
well as t o alleviate emotional distress. As oppos ed to reappraisal, munotes.in
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individuals show a relative preference to engage in distraction when
facing stimuli of high negative emotional intensity. This is because
distraction easily filters out high -intensity emotional content, which
would otherwise be relativel y diffic ult to appraise and process.
Rumination : Rumination, an exa mple of attentional deployment,
is defined as the passive and repetitive focusing of one's attention
on one's symptoms of distress and the causes and consequences
of these symptoms. Rumination is generally considered a
maladaptive emotion regulation strategy, as it tends to exacerbate
emotional distress. It has also been implicated in a host of
disord ers including major depression.
Worry : Worry, an exam ple of attentional deployment, involves
directing attention to thoughts and images concerned with
potentially ne gative events in the fut ure. By focusing on these
events, worrying serves to aid in the down -regulation of intense
negative emotion and physiological activity. While worry may
sometimes involve problem solving, incessant worry is generally
considered maladaptive, being a common feature of anxiety
disorders, particularly g eneralized anxiety disorder.
Thought suppression : Thought suppression, an example of
attent ional deployment, involves efforts to redirect one's attention
from specific thoughts and mental images to other content so as to
modify one's emotional state. Although thought suppression may
provide temporary relief from undesirable thoughts, it may iron ically
end up spurring the production of even more unwanted thoughts.
This strategy is generally considered maladaptive, being most
associated with ob sessive -compulsive disorder.
D. Cognitive change
Cognitive change involves changing how one appraises a s ituation
so as to alter its emotional meaning.
Reappraisal : Reappraisal, an example of cognitive change, is
a late selection strategy, which involves a change of the meaning of
an event that alters its emotional im pact. It encompasses different
substrateg ies, such as positive reappraisal (creating and focusing
on a pos itive aspect of the stimulus), decentering (reinterpreting an
event by broadening one's perspective to see "the bigger picture"),
or fictional reappraisal (adopting or emphasizing the belief that
event is not real, that it is for instance "just a mo vie" or "just my
imagination"). Reappraisal has been shown to effectively reduce
physiological, subjective, and neural emotional responding. As
opposed to distraction, individuals show a relative pr eference to
engage in reappraisal when facing stimuli of low negative emotional
intensity because these stimuli are relativel y easy to appraise and
process. Reappraisal is generally considered to be an adaptive
emotion regulation strategy. Compared to supp ression (including munotes.in
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both thought suppression and expressive suppression), which is
positively correlated with many psychological disorders, reappraisal
can be associated with better interpersonal outcomes, and can be
posit ively related to well -being. Howeve r, some researchers argue
that context is important when evaluating the adaptiveness of a
strategy, suggesting that in some contexts rea ppraisal may be
maladaptive. Furthermore, some research has shown reappraisal
does not influence affect or physiological responses to recurrent
stress.
Distancing : Distancing, an example of cognitive change,
involves taking on an independent, third -person perspective when
evaluating an emotional event. Distancing has been shown to be an
adaptive form of self -reflection, fa cilitating the emotional processing
of negatively valenced stimuli, reducing emotional and
cardiovascular reactivity to negative stimuli, and increasing
problem -solving behavior.
Humour : Humour, an example of cognitive change, has been
shown to be an effe ctive emotion regulation strategy. Specifically,
positive, good -natured humour has been shown to effectively up -
regulate positive emotion and down -regulate negative emotion. On
the other hand, negative, mean -spirited humour is le ss effective in
this regard.
E. Response modulation
Response modulation involves attempts to directly influence
experiential, behavioral, and phy siological response systems.
Expressive suppression : Expressive suppression, an example
of response modulation, involves inhibitin g emotional expressions.
It has been shown to effectively reduce facial expressivity,
subjective feelings of positive emotion, heart rate, and sympathetic
activation. However, the research findings are mixed regarding
whether this strategy is effective for down -regulating negative
emotion. Research has also shown that expressive suppression
may have negative social consequences, correlating with reduced
personal connections and greater difficu lties forming relationships.
Expressive suppression is generally considered to be a
maladaptive emotion regulation strategy. Compared to reappraisal,
it is positively correlated with many psychological disorde rs,
associated with worse interpersonal outcomes, is negat ively related
to well -being, and requires the mobiliza tion of a relatively
substantial am ount of cognitive resources. However, some
researchers argue that context is important when evaluating the
adaptiveness of a strategy, suggesting that in some contexts
suppression may be adaptive.
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Drug use : Drug use, an example of response modulation, can
be used to alter emotion -associated physiological responses. For
example, alcohol can produce sed ative and anxiolytic effects and
beta blockers can af fect sympathetic activation.
Exercise : Exercise, an example of response modulation, can
be used to down -regulate the physiological and experiential effects
of negative emotions. Regular physical activity has also been
shown to reduce emotional distress an d improve emotional control.
Sleep : Sleep plays a role in emoti on regulation, although
stress and worry can also interfere with sleep. Studies have shown
that sleep, specifically REM sleep, down -regulates reactivity of the
amygdala, a brain structure known to be involved in the processing
of emotions, in response to p revious emotional experiences. On the
flip side, sleep deprivation is associated with greater emotional
reactivity or overreaction to negative and stressful stimuli. This is a
result of both increased amygdala activity and a disconnect
between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex, which regulates
the amygdala through inhibition, together resulting in an overactive
emoti onal brain. Due to the subsequent lack of emotional control,
sleep deprivation may be associated with depression, impulsivity,
and mood swings. Additionally, there is some evidence that sleep
deprivation may reduce emotional reactivity to positive stimuli and
events and impair em otion recognition in others.
5.8. OB APPLICATIONS OF EMOTIONS AND MOODS
Many components of organizational beha vior, such as making
decisions, innovation, motivation, and management, might
influence our understanding of moods and emotions.
Decision -making : Emotions and emotions have a substantial
impact on a person's life, shaping how they make decisions.
Problem -solving skills are enhanced by positive emotions.
Individuals with positive emotions and moods are much more likely
to make good judgments. As a result, positive people come up with
smarter ideas.
Creativity : It seems that individuals who are expe riencing positive
emotions or moods are much more flexible and transparent; this
could also explain why they're productive and original. Managers
should seek to maintain staff happiness because that will help them
achieve the organisation’s objectives more successfully and
effectively Andrade & Dan (2009).
Motivation : Individuals are driven to the extent that their actions
are expected to result in the desired consequence. Employees who
are highly motivated in their occupations are emotionally invested in
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and physically and emotionally involved in the experience of acting
to attain a goal Hume (2012).
Leadership : Leaders who share positive emotions are seen as
more effective, while followers who are in a happy emotional
atmosphere are more creative. Leaders that are goal oriented
inspire staff to be more optimistic, cooperative, and motivated,
resulting in more good social interactions with co -workers and
consumers. By sparking emotions and attach ing them to an
interesting vision, leaders help others accept change and feel
attached to a new plan Neharika (2019); Bradley (2020); Hoy
(2018).
Work -life satisfaction: Both work and home events have an
impact on the relationship between moods and work -life
satisfaction. A happy mood at work will usually flow over into your
off-work hours, and a negative mood at work can be transformed
into a positive mood after a break. However, the emotions of your
household might sometimes interfere with your own . As a result,
there is a positive and negative association between emotions and
job satisfaction.
Deviant workplace behavior: Behaviours that are out of the
ordinary in the job – Negative emotions that contravene established
organisational standards are linked to deviant behaviour. We
experience unpleasant sentiments and engage in hostile deviant
behaviour when we resent someone for something we don't have
but desperately want. Many studies have discovered that
individuals who experience negative emotions , specifically anger,
are more likely to engage in unethical behaviour at work than
people who choose not to.
Customer service: Customer service is influenced by an
employee's emotional state, which has an impact on customer
satisfaction. Employees may be able to pass on their emotions to
customers. When someone expresses pleasant emotions such as
laughter and smiles at you, you begin to imitate their behaviour. As
a result, when employees display happy emotions, consumers are
more likely to respond positi vely. This is what I refer to as emotional
contagion, and it's vital because happy customers buy for longer
than angry customers. When an employee is grumpy or obnoxious,
though, such unpleasant emotions have a detrimental impact on
customers.
5.9 SUMMERY
In emotions we first talked about its definition. Lastly, we discussed
about experiencing two major emotions, that is, anger and
happiness. We saw in detail what are the consequences of anger
and how it can be controlled. In case of happiness , we discussed
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limited connection between wealth and feeling of well -being. How
two psychological phenomena -adaptation and comparison can
influence the experience of happiness.
Further, w e have seen sources of emotions and moods in which we
discussed Personality , Day of the week or time of the day ,
Weather , Stress , Social activities , Sleep , Exercise , Age and Gender
as sources of emotions and moods. Then in this unit we have seen
emotional labor, its definition and Impact.
We have also seen affective events theory and factors affecting
employee experience at work . One important concept and
components related to intelligence were also discussed that is
Emotional Intelligence,
Emotional labo r also discussed in form of definition of emotional
labor and what impact does emotional labors have an employee’s
At last, we have seen affective events theory with knowing the
factors affecting employee experience at work and emotion
regulation with how we control our emotions and strategies to
emotion regulation
5.10 QUESTIONS
1. What are emotions and moods? Discuss.
2. Write in brief the different sources of emotions and moods.
3. Write brief note on emotional labor.
4. Discuss in detail about emotional intelligence.
5. Discuss in detail on emotion regulation
5.11 REFERENCES
Robbins, S. P. Judge, T. A. (2019). Essentials of Organizational
Behavior. (14th ed.). Indian subcontinent reprint, Pearson India
Education Services
Myers, D. G. (2013). Psychology .10thedition; International edition.
New York: Worth Palgrave Macmillan, Indian reprint 2013
Ciccarelli, S. K. & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology. (Indian sub -
continent adaptation). New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley (India) pvt ltd.
Andrade, E.B., & Dan, A. (2009) "The enduring impact of transient
emotions on decision making." Organizational Behaviour and
Human Decision Processes 109.1: 1 -8. munotes.in
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Bradley, A.J. (2020). Gartner Blog Network. Hoy, M.B. (2018).
Alexa, Siri, Cortana, and more: an introduction to voic e assistants.
Medical reference services quarterly, 37(1), 81 -88.
Hume, D. "Emotions and moods." Organizational behaviour (2012):
258-297. Neharika, V., Stephen, P., Timothy, A. (2019). CH -4:
Organizational Behaviour. 116, 137 -142
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Question Paper Pattern
Marks : 100 Duration: 03 Hrs.
All Questions are Compulsory
Question No Particular
Marks
Q-1
Objective Questions
A) Questions to be asked 12 and to be answered any 10
(Multiple choice)
B) Questions to be asked 12 and to be answered any 10
(*True or False) 20
Q-2 Answer any 2 out of 3(Module 1) 15
Q-3 Answer any 2 out of 3(Module 2) 15
Q-4 Answer any 2 out of 3(Module 3) 15
Q-5 Answer any 2 out of 3(Module 4) 15
Q-6 Write short notes on any 4 out of 6 (All Modules) 20
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